THE ROLE OF SOCIODEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS IN THE PERCEPTION OF HATE SPEECH
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.63177/isc.2026.12Keywords:
hate speech, perception, gender, age, ethnicity, raceAbstract
Freedom of expression is one of the fundamental human rights and represents an important means for expressing diverse ideas and opinions.
However, challenges arise when an appropriate balance between the right to freedom of expression and the right to protection from discrimination is not maintained. This is particularly evident when expression conveys hatred toward individuals or groups based on personal characteristics such as race, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, disability, or similar attributes. The aim of this paper is to provide a systematic overview of existing empirical research examining the role of sociodemographic factors in the perception of hate speech, with a particular focus on gender, age, level of education, and related variables. The analysis encompasses studies addressing the ability to recognize hate speech, perceptions of its acceptability, as well as assessment of the harmfulness and social consequences of such messages. Previous research findings suggest consistent, although not always unambiguous patterns of associations between sociodemographic characteristics and the perception of hate speech. While differences related to gender and ethnic and racial background are frequently observed, the effects of age are often dependent on context, the type of hate speech, and intervening variables. The paper also discusses key methodological challenges in this field, including the operationalization of hate speech and the variability of research instruments used across studies. Given the continuing social relevance of hate speech, research on its perception remains highly important. The findings of such studies may serve as valuable basis for the development of effective public policies and educational interventions aimed at preventing and reducing hate speech.
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